CIRCLE OF CONFUSION

A picture is basically an accumulation of many points that are exact images of points composing the subject. After light strikes a subject, it is reflected from many points on the subject. A camera lens redirects these reflected rays into corresponding points on the film. Each of these points is reproduced by the lens as a circle. When the circle is smaller than l/100 inch, it appears as a sharp point to the eye. When the circle is larger than 1/100 inch, the eye sees it as a circle, and the image is blurred or out of focus. Each out-of- focus circle on the film is called a circle of confusion and can be visualized as the crosssection of a cone of a light ray

When a lens is focused on an object at a certain distance, other objects, both closer and farther than the focus distance, form larger circles of confusion. When the film is placed at a point corresponding to the lens focus distance, a clear image is produced. When the film is nearer or farther away from the lens than the corresponding lens focus distance, the image becomes blurred because of the larger circles of confusion caused by the intersection of light rays either in front of, or behind, the film plane.
Another factor affecting the circle of confusion is lens aperture. Decreasing a lens opening narrows the light rays passed by the lens. The narrower these rays, the smaller the circles of confusion when the image is not in perfect focus. In practice, this means that a small lens opening is used to record, as clearly as possible, several objects at varying distances. Even when the rays from some objects do not intersect perfectly at the film plane, the circles of confusion ahead or behind the film are negligible and still appear as a sharp image.

The size of the permissible circle of confusion depends on the film format size and the manner in which the film will be used. Experience has shown that the permissible circle of confusion should not exceed about 1/1000 of the focal length of the lens.

The minimum circle of confusion of most lenses is sharp. Consequently, the distance that the focal plane small. Thus the focal plane can be moved slightly and can be moved forward or backward from the plane of yet retain an acceptable sharp image. However, as the sharp focus and continue to produce an image of distance of the movement is increased, the circle of acceptable sharpness is termed the depth of focus. This confusion becomes greater and the image becomes less depth is always within the camera.

DIAPHRAGM

There is in every lens assembly a mechanical device for controlling the amount of light that passes through the lens. This mechanism may have a fixed size, or it may be designed to provide a selection among a number of sizes that can be given to the aperture in a lens. This device is a diaphragm, and its scale increments are called f/stops. It is located within the lens to cut off or obstruct the marginal light rays while permitting the more central rays to pass. Most lenses have a series of thin metal leaves for this purpose. These leaves are arranged and shaped to provide an approximately circular opening that can be changed in size, when desired, and is called an iris diaphragm. This

opening is always concentric (centered) with, and perpendicular to the optical axis of the lens. Its location in the lens barrel is determined by the manufacturer when the lens is designed. Rotating the diaphragm control ring in the direction that reduces the size of the aperture is termed stopping down. Moving the control ring so it enlarges the aperture size is termed opening up. When the diaphragm is set at the largest aperture, the lens is said to be wide open. The better the quality of the optics within the lens, the larger the possible maximum aperture. The size of the largest opening is the maximum working aperture of the lens and is called the lens speed. The diaphragm, along with the shutter, controls the amount of light passing through a lens, and hence the exposure the film receives.

There are many different aperture sizes possible with the diaphragm, and each aperture size has a different value. Consequently, a system was devised for marking them so they could be used with consistency. The factorial system has become the most widely used.

This system uses a set of markings commonly called the f/system. By using the diaphragm control ring, or lever, you can bring the index mark into line with the numbers

that indicate the measured f/stop of the aperture. Remember, as these index numbers increase in size, the opening decreases in size. Furthermore, these numbers are chosen by moving the index pointer to the next larger number, and the amount of light admitted is cut in half. The first or lowest number in the series is usually an exception. All these numbers may not exactly reduce the amount of light admitted by one half, but they are

sufficiently close for all practical purposes. However, all of these values are in proportion to the squares of their numbers. For example, f/4 admits four times more light than f/8 because the square of f/4 is contained in the square of f/8 exactly four times. Thus,

42 = 4 x 4 = 16

82 = 8 x 8 = 64

64/16=4

EXAMPLE: The correct exposure at f/8 required 1 second. How long an exposure is required at f/16? The proportion and computation are as follows:

(Old f/value)2 /(New f/value) 2 =(Old exposure)/ (Required exposure)

82 /162 = 1/x

64 /256 =1/x

64x = 256

x = 4

Thus the required exposure equals 4 seconds.

Comparison of f/stops with Amount of Light to Exposure Time

f/ value	f/value2 squared	Amount of light admitted	Exposure in seconds
4	16	4	1/4
4.5 (half stop)	20.25	3.2	1/3
5.6	31.36	2	1/2
8	64	1	1
11	121	1/2	2
16	256	1/4	4
22	448	1/16	8
32	1024	1/32	16

Amount of light, f/stop, and Exposure Time Relationship

f/stop	Relative exposure	Relative amount of light admitted
1	0.06	16
1.4	0.12	8
2	0.25	4
2.8	0.50	2
4	1	1
5.6	2	½
8	3	¼
11	8	1/8
16	16	1/16
22	32	1/32
32	64	1/64
45	128	1/128
64	256	1/256

The first (lowest) f/stop marked on the lens mount is the correct value for its largest aperture. The next number is the nearest f/stop in an arbitrary series that has been adopted as a standard. In this standard series, each succeeding number going up the scale (from the largest opening to the smallest) permits only half as much light to enter the camera. Thus, as the numbers get larger, the diaphragm openings (apertures) become smaller. However, moving the index pointer in the reverse order, down the scale (from the smallest opening to the largest), the numbers get smaller and the diaphragm openings become larger. As shown in table 1-1, the smallest number may not admit exactly twice as much light as the next larger number. Nevertheless, the amount of light admitted remains inversely proportional to the square of the f/stop, and the exposure required is always directly proportional to it. All lenses are indexed with the standard series of f/stops either completely or in part-except for the first f/stop (as stated earlier) that is computed to indicate the correct value of the maximum aperture.

The following table is a listing of the f/stop, known as the

standard full stops. A comparative exposure based on 1 second at f/4 or 16 seconds at f/16 is also shown By studying the table, you can see that when the lens aperture is opened one full stop, the amount of light transmitted is twice that of the nearest preceding stop. And altering the f/stop one full stop less (stopping down) reduces the amount of light passing through the lens to one half that of the nearest larger stop.

In summary then:

• Light passes through an opening (aperture) of the lens. The diameter of the aperture can be changed. The openings are called f/stops. The f/stops indicate to the photographer that a lens (any lens) with a specific f/stop allows a given amount of light to the film. Thus a 20-inch focal-length lens set at f/4.5 will give same exposure as a 10-inch focal-length lens set at f/4.5.
• The f/stops represent a fraction of the focal length of the lens for a given lens; that is, an f/4 lens has an effective maximum opening of one fourth of its focal length.
• From one full f/stop to the next full f/stop, there is a constant factor of two. As the opening changes from f/8 to f/l1, the light passing through the lens is reduced by one half because the larger f/stop (f/11) is a smaller aperture. When the aperture is changed from f/8 to f/5.6, the light passed is doubled because the aperture has been made larger.

f/stop of a Lens

To use lenses correctly, a photographer must understand the relationship between the aperture of a lens and the brightness of the image produced at the focal plane. The aperture of a lens is simply the opening through which light passes. The aperture is controlled by an adjustable diaphragm or iris. Each setting of the diaphragm is called an f/stop and is always read as a number, not as a fraction or true ratio. It is referred to as

the f/stop or the f/stop of the diaphragm opening. This value is designated by a lowercase f with a slant (/) between the f and the value. For example, f/8 means that the diameter of the opening in the diaphragm is one eighth of the lens focal length, but only “when the lens is focused on infinity.” In this example f/8 is the effective aperture. If the lens were focused at other than infinity, f/8 would then be the relative aperture. In the study of the relationship between aperture and image brightness, the term relative aperture is used frequently. The term relative aperture then refers to the ratio between the effective aperture of the lens and its focal length. The relative aperture of a lens is controlled by two factors: (1) the diameter of the beam of light passed by the lens; and (2) the focal length of the lens, which governs the size of the area over which the light is spread.

f/stop Applications

The formula to determine the f/stop of a lens is as follows:

f = F/D

Where:

F = focal length

D = diameter of the effective aperture

f = f/stop, or the relative aperture

EXAMPLE: To find the f/stop of a lens that has a focal

length of 8 inches and the diameter of the effective

aperture is 2 inches, use the formula below.

f= F/D

f= 8/2 = 4

Therefore, the lens has a relative aperture of f/4. When the diameter of the opening (aperture) of the lens is made smaller, less light is admitted and the image formed by the beam of light passing through the smaller opening becomes dim. As the size of the opening is reduced, the ratio between the aperture and the focal length increases. Thus an inverse relationship exists between the E/number and the relative aperture; as the f/stop becomes larger, the size of the relative aperture decreases. Since the f/stop is a ratio of focal length to the lens diameter, all lenses with the same f/stops regardless of

focal length provide the same amount of light on the focal plane; that is, when all the other factors that affect image brightness remain constant.

f/stops have three functions:

1. They act as a partial control of exposure (the other exposure control is the shutter).

2. They help control depth of field.

3. They allow the photographer to adjust the aperture to the point of best definition of the lens, sometimes called the optimum or critical aperture.